M. Asım Köksal – History of Islam (Book 3) Book Summary: From the Trench to the Conquest of Mecca

Chapter 4: The Expedition of Hudaybiyyah

The expedition took place in the sixth year of the Hijra, during the month of Dhu al-Qi'dah. The Prophet set out on Monday, at the beginning of Dhu al-Qi'dah, riding his camel Qaswa, accompanied by the Muslims.

Hudaybiyyah is a village of medium size—neither large nor small. It takes its name from a well located near the Mosque of the Tree (Masjid al-Shajarah), so called because of the tree under which the Prophet received the pledge of allegiance.

The Prophet's Dream and the Intention for Umrah

The Prophet informed his companions of his dream: "I saw in a dream that you will surely enter the Sacred Mosque, shave your heads, and shorten your hair."

Upon seeing this dream, the Prophet resolved to perform Umrah—to circumambulate and visit the Kaaba. He told some of his companions to prepare.

The number of those who set out with the Prophet was 1,400. Other narrations mention figures as high as 1,700, with the difference attributed to Bedouin Arabs joining along the way. Among them were 100 from the tribe of Aslam (some narrations say 70).

Women who joined the expedition included:

Umm Salamah, the Prophet's wife,

Umm Umarah,

Umm Mani',

Umm Amir al-Ash'aliyyah.

Of those who set out, 200 were on horseback. The Muslims carried no weapons other than their swords in their sheaths—which were considered traveler's arms. The Prophet also sent out two advance cavalry units of twenty men each.

The Journey and the Quraysh Reaction

At Dhu al-Hulayfah, the Prophet led the noon prayer, entered into ihram, and prayed two rak'ahs. The Muslims also entered into ihram there.

The Prophet summoned Busr ibn Sufyan and sent him ahead as a scout to Mecca, instructing him:
"Convey to the Quraysh that I wish to perform Umrah, and bring back whatever information you can gather from them."

As the Prophet advanced toward Mecca, the Quraysh polytheists suspected that he was using Umrah as a pretext to enter Mecca with his army. They decided to stop the Muslims and sent a cavalry force of 200 men under the command of Khalid ibn al-Walid or Ikrimah ibn Abi Jahl to Kur'a al-Ghamim. Busr ibn Sufyan returned and informed the Prophet of the situation.

The Prophet's Camel Stops at Hudaybiyyah

After consulting his companions, the Prophet proceeded to Hudaybiyyah and encamped there. There, the Prophet's camel knelt down and refused to go further. Had the Muslims forced their way into Mecca, fighting would have ensued—blood would have been shed and property plundered. Moreover, there were many Muslims in Mecca—men and women—who had kept their faith secret and whom the Muslims did not yet know. Many of them would have been inadvertently killed in the chaos. For this reason, just as Allah had stopped the Elephant from advancing on the Kaaba, He held back Qaswa from entering Mecca.

The Pledge of Ridwan

The Prophet and the Muslims encamped at Hudaybiyyah, and several envoys were exchanged between them and the polytheists. The Prophet explained that they had come for Umrah, not for battle, and that they would return after sacrificing their animals. The polytheists insisted that they would not permit them to enter Mecca.

In this tense atmosphere, the Prophet called for a new pledge of allegiance from the Muslims. Sinan ibn Abi Sinan said: "O Muhammad! O Messenger of Allah! Stretch out your hand so I may pledge allegiance to you."

The Prophet asked: "On what will you pledge allegiance to me?"

Sinan replied: "O Messenger of Allah! I pledge allegiance to you on whatever is in your heart."
The other Muslims then pledged allegiance to the Prophet on the same terms as Sinan, saying: "We pledge allegiance on the same terms as Sinan."

By this pledge, the Muslims swore that they would not flee from battle—they would either achieve victory or be martyred. This is known as the Pledge of Ridwan.

The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

Following the Pledge of Ridwan, the Quraysh polytheists became fearful that the Prophet and his companions might launch a surprise attack. They were compelled to negotiate an agreement. The treaty consisted of eleven articles, summarized as follows:

Article 1: War between the Muslims and the polytheists would cease for ten years, ensuring peace and security for both sides.

Article 2: The terms of the treaty would be upheld, and both parties would not secretly harbor or display enmity toward one another.

Article 3: Neither party would commit theft or treachery against the other.

Article 4: The Muslims would return this year. Next year, they would enter Mecca with only their swords in their sheaths, stay for three days, and sacrifice their animals where they were instead of in Mecca.

Article 5: The Prophet would not take with him anyone from Mecca who wished to convert to Islam, nor would he prevent his companions from staying in Mecca if they wished.

Article 6: The lives and property of Muslims coming for worship or trade (from Yemen, Ta'if, etc.) would be secure.

Article 7: The lives and property of polytheists coming for trade to Medina (from Syria, Egypt, etc.) would be secure.

Article 8: Anyone wishing to enter into alliance with Muhammad was free to do so.

Article 9: Anyone wishing to enter into alliance with the Quraysh was free to do so.

Article 10: Any Quraysh person who fled to Muhammad without the permission of their guardian would be returned to Mecca.

Article 11: Anyone who fled from the Muslims to the Quraysh would not be returned to Muhammad.

The Reaction and the Revelation

Initially, the Muslims reacted with disappointment, as they had not entered Mecca. However, the Prophet ordered them to sacrifice their animals and leave ihram.

On the return journey from Hudaybiyyah, Surah Al-Fath was revealed: 

"Indeed, We have granted you a clear victory" (Al-Fath 48:1).

The Prophet said: "Yes—this [treaty] is the greatest victory. The polytheists have now agreed to your coming and going to their land in safety and peace. They will now see and learn about Islam—which they had previously rejected. Allah will grant you victory over them and bring you back safely and profitably. This is the greatest of victories!"

Indeed, for the first time, the polytheists—who had sought to destroy the Islamic state at Uhud and the Trench—were compelled to recognize and acknowledge it through the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. In the peace that followed, the number of Muslims multiplied many times over. As Jabir ibn Abdullah stated, the Prophet had gone to Hudaybiyyah with 1,400 men; two years later, at the Conquest of Mecca, he led 10,000.

Chapter 5: The Prophet's Envoys Invite Rulers to Islam

In the sixth year of the Hijra, during the month of Dhu al-Hijjah—after returning from Hudaybiyyah to Medina—or according to some narrations, in the month of Muharram of the seventh year of the Hijra, the Prophet gathered his companions and sent some of them as envoys to various regions.

The Prophet sent:

1. Amr ibn Umayyah al-Damri to the Negus, the ruler of Abyssinia,
2. Dihyah ibn Khalifah al-Kalbi to Caesar, the ruler of Rome,
3. Abdullah ibn Hudhafah al-Sahmi to Kisra, the Persian Emperor,
4. Hatib ibn Abi Balta'ah to the Muqawqis, the ruler of Alexandria,
5. Shuja' ibn Wahb to Hawdhah ibn Ali, the ruler of Ghassan.

The Prophet had letters written for each of these rulers to be delivered by his envoys.

The Timing and Purpose of the Invitation

After the Prophet had secured a ten-year peace treaty with the Quraysh polytheists at Hudaybiyyah, the time had come for him to act upon Allah's command:

"Say: 'O mankind! I am the Messenger of Allah to you all.'" (Al-A'raf 7:158)

He was now able to convey the message of Islam to neighboring rulers and tribal leaders—from the nearest to the farthest. To this end, he sent some of his companions as envoys to these rulers, with letters inviting them to Islam.

The Responses of the Rulers

Among the rulers to whom the Prophet sent letters, only the Negus of Abyssinia accepted Islam—though he kept his faith secret due to the opposition of his people. Most of the other rulers responded positively to the Prophet's letter but did not embrace Islam, out of fear of their subjects and concern for losing their thrones. The Persian Emperor Kisra, however, reacted with anger and ordered his men to have the Prophet killed. Shortly afterward, Kisra was killed by his own son.

Detailed Accounts

This chapter includes detailed accounts of the letters sent, how each ruler responded, what replies they wrote, what gifts they sent to the Prophet, and all the events that transpired.

Chapter 6: Toward "A Clear Victory"

This chapter begins with the account of the Expedition of Hisma. The expedition took place at the beginning of the seventh year of the Hijra. Hisma is a tract of land in Syria, located two nights' journey from Wadi al-Qura. It was the encampment of the Juzam tribe.

When the Prophet's envoy, Dihyah ibn Khalifah, was returning to Medina from the court of Caesar Heraclius, he passed through Hisma. There, a man named Hunayd, along with his son and some other men from the Juzam tribe, intercepted him and robbed him of the many valuable gifts he had received from Caesar. He was able to reach Medina only in his old worn-out clothes. Upon this, the Prophet sent Zayd ibn Harithah at the head of a 500-strong disciplinary force against the Juzam tribe.

The Incident of Magic (Sihr)

The chapter then discusses topics such as magic and soothsaying, as the incident of magic being cast upon the Prophet took place in the seventh year of the Hijra. A Jew named Labid ibn al-A'sam—who had outwardly declared Islam but remained a hypocrite, and who was skilled in sorcery—managed to obtain the Prophet's comb and hair. He cast a spell on it and hid the object under a stone at the bottom of a well. The Prophet fell ill for a time. Eventually, through the news brought by the angels, the enchanted items were found and the spell was removed.

Chapter 7: The Expedition of Khaybar

After returning from Hudaybiyyah and spending the month of Dhu al-Hijjah and part of Muharram in Medina, the Prophet marched toward Khaybar at the end of Muharram in the seventh year of the Hijra.

Khaybar is a city located on the route to Syria, approximately 48 miles from Medina, with many cultivated fields and date-palm groves.

The Reasons for the Expedition

There were several reasons for the Khaybar expedition:

When the Banu Nadir Jews were expelled from their homes for attempting to kill the Prophet by rolling a rock from a rooftop—despite the treaty between them—some of them settled in Syria, while others went to Khaybar. A group of Jews from there later gathered the Meccan polytheists and surrounding tribes and attacked Medina with an army of 10,000 men, resulting in the Battle of the Trench.

After the Prophet punished the Banu Qurayza following the Trench, the Jews of Khaybar became fearful. Their new leader, Usayr, approached the Ghatafan and others, rallying them to fight against the Prophet.

The Prophet's Preparation

The Prophet learned of these preparations. In the sixth year of the Hijra, during Ramadan, he sent Abdullah ibn Rawahah at the head of three men as scouts to Khaybar. They gathered intelligence and reported back to the Prophet.

Later, Harithah ibn Husayl al-Ashja'i came to the Prophet and said: "I left Usayr ibn Zarim with many military units of the Jews, marching against you."

The Prophet then considered appointing Usayr as governor of Khaybar to bring peace, but Usayr initially showed interest and then turned to treachery.

The Strategic Necessity

According to the agreement between the Jews of Khaybar and the Meccans, if the Prophet marched against the Jews, the Meccan polytheists would attack Medina; if the Prophet marched against the Meccans, the Khaybar Jews would attack Medina. This made Khaybar an increasingly dangerous threat to the Muslims. However, dealing with Khaybar before making peace with the Quraysh could be very risky. Therefore, the Prophet organized the Umrah expedition to Hudaybiyyah and secured a ten-year peace treaty with the Quraysh.

Only after neutralizing the threat from the Meccan polytheists did the Prophet march against Khaybar.

The Muslim Army

The Muslim fighters who participated in the Khaybar expedition numbered 1,400 infantry and 200 cavalry. Twenty Muslim women also joined the expedition—including the Prophet's wife, his aunt, and his nursemaid. These women would not only tend to the wounded with the medicines they carried but also cook for the fighters, spin thread, and do whatever they could in the path of Allah.

The chief hypocrite, Abdullah ibn Ubayy ibn Salul, sent word to the Khaybar Jews, warning them of the approaching Muslim army.

The Siege of Khaybar

The Khaybar Jews withdrew into their fortresses. Fighting continued between them and the Muslims for several days. The Prophet invited the Khaybar Jews to Islam, offering them protection for their lives and property, but they refused.

The Ghatafan—allies of the Jews—had come to their aid, having been promised half of Khaybar's date harvest for their support. At one point, the Prophet sent word to the Ghatafan leaders, offering them Khaybar's produce for one year if they withdrew. However, they refused. The Prophet then ordered the Muslim fighters to direct their attacks toward the fortress where the Ghatafan were stationed. In the morning, someone shouted that the Ghatafan's families were in distress, and the Ghatafan packed up and left. The Khaybar Jews regretted having relied on the Arabs—the Ghatafan—for this war.

The Conquest of the Fortresses

After this, the Prophet gave the banner to Ali. On that day, the fortress of Na'tat was captured by the Muslims. Then, one by one, the fortresses of Na'im and Sa'b ibn Mu'adh were also captured. The Muslims found abundant food in the Sa'b ibn Mu'adh fortress—a great relief, especially during a time of scarcity. Finally, the last of the Na'tat fortresses, Qull, was also conquered.

Next was the fortress of Shikk. The Jews who could not hold their positions in Na'tat and Shikk retreated to the fortresses of Katibah, Qamus, Watih, and Sulalim, where they defended themselves against the Muslim fighters.

Kinana ibn Abi al-Huqayq resided in the fortresses of Watih and Sulalim. Allah cast fear into the hearts of the Jews. Realizing they would be destroyed, they requested that their lives be spared and that they be allowed to leave as exiles. The Prophet accepted. Thus, they surrendered. Their lives were spared, and they agreed to depart with their families, property, and whatever they could carry on camels—excluding weapons.

The Spoils of War

The Muslims acquired a great deal of spoils from the battle.

The Poisoning of the Prophet

While the Prophet was resting after the conquest of Khaybar, Zaynab—the wife of Sallam ibn Mishkam—had a goat roasted, poisoned it, and brought it to the Prophet and his companions as a gift. The Prophet took a piece from the shoulder of the roasted goat and put it in his mouth but spat it out immediately without swallowing.

Bishr ibn Bara' ibn Ma'ruf also took a piece like the Prophet's, put it in his mouth, and swallowed it. The Prophet told his companions that the meat was poisoned.

Bishr ibn Bara' died one year later as a result of the poisoning. The Prophet lived for another three years after this incident. During his final illness, it is reported that the illness was a consequence of the poisoning at Khaybar.

Aisha reported that during the Prophet's final illness, he said:

"O Aisha! I still feel the pain of the poisoned meat I tasted at Khaybar. At this moment, I feel my aorta being severed."

The Prophet died as a martyr because of this poisoning. Allah, Who had honored him with prophethood, also honored him with martyrdom.

The Casualties

More than twenty Muslim fighters were martyred in the Khaybar expedition. The number of Jews killed was 93.

Chapter 8: After Khaybar

After Khaybar, the Prophet also sent an envoy to the Jews of Fadak. They were among those who had planned to join forces with the Khaybar Jews and attack Medina. When the Banu Qurayza were punished for their treachery during the Battle of the Trench, the Khaybar Jews had resolved to march against Medina, taking with them the Jews of Fadak, Wadi al-Qura, and Tayma.

The Treaty with Fadak

When Khaybar fell, the Jews of Fadak also wished to come to an agreement with the Prophet. They agreed to a treaty whereby half of the land of Fadak would remain with them, and the other half would belong to the Prophet.

The Expedition to Wadi al-Qura

After concluding the treaty with the Jews of Fadak, the Prophet departed from Khaybar and headed toward Wadi al-Qura. The expedition to Wadi al-Qura took place in the seventh year of the Hijra, during the month of Jumada al-Akhirah, on the Prophet's return journey from Khaybar. The Jews of Wadi al-Qura were also among those who had planned to attack Medina. For this reason, an expedition was carried out against them. After a brief skirmish, they surrendered.

The Expedition to Tayma

The expedition to Tayma took place shortly after the surrender of the Jews of Wadi al-Qura. When the Jews of Tayma heard that the Prophet had brought the Jews of Khaybar, Fadak, and Wadi al-Qura under his authority, they made a treaty with the Prophet to pay jizyah and kharaj (tribute). Thus, they were able to remain in their homes and retain their lands.

Other Events in This Chapter

In addition to these events, this chapter covers a series of other expeditions and various incidents, including:

• The return of the Muslims who had migrated to Abyssinia back to Medina.
• The conversion of a group of seventy religious scholars who came from Abyssinia to Islam.
• The murder of Abdullah ibn Sahl in Khaybar.

Chapter 9: The Expedition of Umrat al-Qada

In the sixth year of the Hijra, according to the treaty made with the Quraysh polytheists at Hudaybiyyah, the time had come for the Umrah to be performed the following year. When the month of Dhu al-Qi'dah of the seventh year of the Hijra arrived, the Prophet commanded his companions—except for those who had been martyred or had passed away—to prepare for the Umrah without any of them remaining behind. The number of Muslims who prepared for the Umrah reached 2,000. Sixty camels were prepared for sacrifice.

The Prophet's Precautions

The Prophet took one hundred horses with him, along with military weapons such as helmets, chainmail, and spears. He sent one hundred horsemen ahead, appointing Muhammad ibn Maslamah as their commander.

The companions asked: "O Messenger of Allah! The Quraysh stipulated that we may only enter with our swords in their sheaths—traveler's weapons. Yet you are carrying arms?"

The Prophet replied: "We will not bring these weapons into the Sacred Precinct where the Quraysh are. They will remain close at hand, under our control, in case the Quraysh launch an attack against us."

Entering Ihram and Advancing

When they reached Dhu al-Hulayfah, the Prophet sent the horsemen ahead, along with the weapons and the sacrificial camels. At the mosque of Dhu al-Hulayfah, the Prophet entered into ihram and began reciting the talbiyah.

The Quraysh's Fear and the Agreement

When the Quraysh polytheists saw the horsemen and weapons, they became afraid, saying: "We have not broken the treaty—why is Muhammad advancing against us?"

When the Prophet reached Marr al-Zahran, he sent all the weapons to Batn Ya'jaj (or Ya'jij), a place about three miles from Mecca from which the boundary markers of the Sacred Precinct could be seen. He left 200 men there to guard the weapons, appointing Aws ibn Hawli from the Ansar as their commander.

The Quraysh polytheists sent a representative to the Prophet. The Prophet confirmed that, according to the treaty, he would enter Mecca unarmed—with only traveler's swords—and informed them that he only wished to keep the weapons nearby. Upon this assurance, the polytheists evacuated Mecca and withdrew to the mountain peaks.

The Entry into Mecca

The Quraysh leaders had gone to the mountain peaks to avoid seeing the Prophet and the Muslims. However, the people of Mecca—men, women, and children—lined up at Dar al-Nadwah to watch the Prophet and his companions.

The Prophet performed the tawaf (circumambulation), prayed, and sacrificed his animals. His companions also performed the rites of Umrah. While in Mecca, on the suggestion of Abbas, the Prophet decided to marry Maymunah. He requested permission to stay for an additional three days beyond the three stipulated in the treaty to hold the wedding there. His request was not granted, so he departed from Mecca with his companions.

Chapter 10: New Expeditions, New Conversions

The dispatch of Ahram ibn Abi al-Awja' with a small military unit against the Banu Sulaym took place after the return from Umrah in the seventh year of the Hijra, during the month of Dhu al-Hijjah. However, this small military unit was nearly all martyred by that tribe.

The Death of Zaynab

Zaynab, the daughter of the Prophet, passed away at the beginning of the eighth year of the Hijra.

The Conversions of Khalid ibn al-Walid, Uthman ibn Talhah, and Amr ibn al-As

On the first day of Safar in the eighth year of the Hijra, Khalid ibn al-Walid, followed by Uthman ibn Talhah, and then Amr ibn al-As, pledged allegiance to the Prophet and embraced Islam. Khalid ibn al-Walid and Uthman ibn Talhah had set out from Mecca and met Amr ibn al-As on the way. Amr ibn al-As had resolved to become a Muslim while he was still with the Negus. Thus, their paths crossed on the way to Medina, and they went together to the Prophet to embrace Islam.

The Prophet gave Khalid ibn al-Walid a place near his home. He placed him in command of the cavalry in various battles and never removed him from this role.

Subsequent Expeditions

The book then narrates several expeditions. According to the Hudaybiyyah treaty, any tribe wishing to ally with either side was free to do so. Under this agreement, the prohibition of fighting and attacking also extended to allied tribes. However, there were tribes outside this agreement. Military expeditions were carried out against those who had previously allied with the polytheists to attack the Muslims.

Galib ibn Abdullah was dispatched against the Banu Mulawwah. Additionally, in the seventh year of the Hijra, during the month of Sha'ban, the Prophet sent a military unit of thirty men under the command of Bashir ibn Sa'd against the Banu Murrah. When this group of thirty was martyred, Galib ibn Abdullah, upon returning from another expedition, was sent with a force of 200 men against the Banu Murrah in Fadak.

Chapter 11: The Expedition of Mu'tah

The Battle of Mu'tah took place in the eighth year of the Hijra, during the month of Jumada al-Ula. Mu'tah is a village in the Balqa region, near the borders of Syria, and is located two stages (travel distances) from Jerusalem.

The Cause of the Battle

The reason for the battle was that Harith ibn Umayr—who was carrying the Prophet's letter to the Roman Caesar in Syria—was killed at Mu'tah by Shurahbil ibn Amr al-Ghassani. The number of Muslim fighters who armed themselves and prepared to set out was 3,000.

The Prophet's Appointment of Commanders

The Prophet said:

"Zayd ibn Harithah is the commander of these people going out for jihad. If Zayd ibn Harithah is killed, then Ja'far ibn Abi Talib is the commander. If Ja'far ibn Abi Talib is killed, then Abdullah ibn Rawahah is the commander. If Abdullah ibn Rawahah is killed, then the Muslims should choose a suitable man among themselves and appoint him as their commander."

After giving them his counsel, the Prophet bid them farewell.

The Enemy Forces

When Shurahbil ibn Amr learned that the Muslim fighters were advancing toward him, he gathered a large army. The number of soldiers he assembled exceeded 100,000.

The Muslim fighters continued their march and reached Ma'an in Syrian territory. There they learned that Caesar Heraclius had encamped at Me'ab in the Balqa region with 100,000 soldiers, and that an additional force of 100,000—consisting of Christian Arabs from the tribes of Lakhm, Judham, Qayn, Bahra', Wa'il, Bakr, and Baliyy—had joined them under the command of Malik ibn Zafilah of the Baliyy tribe.

According to another narration, the total number of assembled enemy forces was 250,000—150,000 or 200,000 Romans and 50,000 Christian Arabs. They were well-equipped with horses and weapons, while the Muslims lacked these advantages.

The Muslims' Resolve

The fighters discussed what they should do in the face of such a massive army. Abdullah ibn Rawahah said:

"O my people! By Allah, what you now dislike is precisely the martyrdom you set out seeking. We fight not because of our numbers, weapons, or cavalry, but because of the strength of this religion with which Allah has honored us. Go forth and fight! There is one of two good things in this: either victory or martyrdom. By Allah, we had only two horses with us at Badr and only one at Uhud. If it is destined for us to overcome the enemy, then that is Allah's promise to us—and Allah never breaks His promise. And if martyrdom is our destiny, then we will join our brothers who have gone before us in Paradise."

These words of Abdullah ibn Rawahah strengthened the resolve of the fighters.

The Battle and the Commanders' Martyrdom

The Muslim fighters engaged the Roman army in fierce combat. Zayd ibn Harithah was martyred at the age of fifty-five. When Zayd fell, Ja'far took the banner. When he too was martyred, Abdullah ibn Rawahah took the banner. When he was also martyred, the Muslims chose Khalid ibn al-Walid as their commander.

Khalid ibn al-Walid's Tactics

Khalid ibn al-Walid spent the night regrouping. By morning, he had moved the front ranks to the rear, the rear to the front, the right flank to the left, and the left flank to the right. When the Romans saw different faces and banners from those they had encountered the day before, they became uneasy and said: "Reinforcements must have arrived for them." Fear fell upon their hearts. The Muslims also managed to capture some spoils from the routed enemy.

The Outcome

For seven days, 3,000 Muslim fighters fought against enemy forces numbering 200,000 or 250,000—equipped and outnumbering the Muslims seventy to eighty times in both numbers and weaponry. With a general assault, the enemy could have surrounded and annihilated the Muslims to the last man. However, through Khalid ibn al-Walid's tactical maneuvers and successive attacks, he bewildered the enemy so effectively that they did not pursue the Muslims. In the seven days of the Battle of Mu'tah, only fourteen Muslim fighters were martyred, while the enemy suffered heavy casualties. The enemy also withdrew from the battlefield after the Muslims departed.

Chapter 12: On the Eve of the Greatest Conquest

The Expedition of Dhat al-Salasil took place in the eighth year of the Hijra, during the month of Jumada al-Akhirah. The Prophet had received news that the tribes of Quda'ah, Baliyy, Judham, Banu Udhrah, and Yemen were gathering with the intention of besieging Medina. Upon this, he called Amr ibn al-As and appointed him as commander. Amr ibn al-As's grandmother was from the Baliyy tribe. For this reason, the Prophet appointed Amr ibn al-As as the commander of the unit to be sent, hoping to soften and win over the Banu Baliyy.

Amr was placed in command of 300 men, including prominent and distinguished figures from the Muhajirun and Ansar. They had 30 horses with them. However, the enemy had gathered a larger force. For this reason, Amr sent word to the Prophet requesting reinforcements. An additional force of 200 men—including Abu Bakr and Umar—was sent under the command of Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah. After some skirmishes, they returned.

Subsequent Expeditions

The chapter then covers the following expeditions:

• The Dispatch of Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah to Sif al-Bahr (Habat)
• The Dispatch of Abu Qatadah to Hadirah
• The Dispatch of Abdullah ibn Abi Hadrad to Ghabah
• The Conversion of the Banu Sulaym

The chapter also recounts the arrival and conversion to Islam of a delegation from the Banu Sulaym in Medina.

Chapter 13: The Conquest of Mecca

The expedition for the Conquest of Mecca took place in the eighth year of the Hijra, during the month of Ramadan.

A Brief History of Mecca

The author begins this chapter with a history of Mecca. This barren, mountain-surrounded valley was where Abraham brought his wife Hagar and their infant son Ishmael and left them. Later, an angel caused the water of the Zamzam well to spring forth. Ishmael and his mother lived there alone for a time. When the Jurhum tribe saw that there was water in the area, they requested permission to settle there. Ishmael grew up and married a woman from among them.

Later, Abraham came from Syria and, together with his son, rebuilt the Kaaba on its original foundations. By Allah's command, he called the people to the pilgrimage.

The Reason for the Conquest

The author then explains the reason for the conquest. The sole cause was the violation and breach of the Hudaybiyyah treaty by the Quraysh polytheists. According to the treaty, any tribe was free to enter into alliance with either the Muslims or the polytheists. The Khuza'ah—the Banu Ka'b—entered into alliance with the Muslims, while the Banu Bakr entered into alliance with the polytheists. There was a longstanding enmity between the Banu Bakr and the Khuza'ah, who had fought and shed each other's blood in the past.

The Banu Di'l, a branch of the Banu Bakr, took advantage of the peace established by the Hudaybiyyah treaty to seek revenge for their men who had been killed by the Khuza'ah. Nawfal ibn Mu'awiyah, the leader and commander of the Banu Di'l, made some moves in this direction. The Quraysh secretly aided them—providing weapons, horses, and food. Some Quraysh polytheists even participated in the night raid with their faces covered, thinking that the Prophet would not know who had attacked. Nawfal ibn Mu'awiyah, along with his followers from the Banu Di'l and Banu Bakr, launched a surprise night attack on the Khuza'ah at the waters of Watir. The Khuza'ah fought and retreated into the sacred precinct (Haram), but the Banu Bakr did not stop and continued killing even there. Some Khuza'ah women and children sought refuge in houses in Mecca. Abu Sufyan was unaware of this attack. This incident took place seventeen or eighteen months after the Hudaybiyyah treaty.

The Quraysh leaders who had secretly supported the Banu Bakr during the night returned to their homes by dawn. They believed that no one had seen their attack and that the Prophet could not know about it. However, when morning came and they saw that twenty Khuza'ah men who had taken refuge in the houses of Rafi' and Budayl had been slaughtered at the doors of those houses, the Quraysh polytheists were struck with panic and fear. They deeply regretted their actions and realized that they had violated the truce and treaty with the Prophet.

Abu Sufyan's Attempt at Reconciliation

When Abu Sufyan learned of the incident, he wanted to go and meet with the Prophet. He consulted with the Quraysh leaders. They had three options: pay blood money for the Khuza'ah, renounce their alliance with the Banu Bakr, or fight the Muslims. Abu Sufyan chose to deny the incident, claiming that some Quraysh had acted without their knowledge and consent.

The Khuza'ah informed the Prophet of the incident and sought his help. He assured them he would help them. He first sent a letter to the Quraysh polytheists, which stated:

"You must either renounce your alliance with the Banu Bakr, or pay the blood money for those killed from the Khuza'ah. If you do neither, I declare that I will fight you."

The Quraysh polytheists rejected both offers—paying blood money and severing ties with the Banu Bakr—and chose war. The messenger returned with this news. However, the polytheists soon regretted their decision and sent Abu Sufyan to Medina to renew the treaty.

The Prophet's Preparation

Abu Sufyan was unsuccessful in his mission and returned empty-handed. The Prophet then began preparations for the expedition, keeping its destination secret and placing scouts on the roads to Mecca.

The Prophet sent messengers to the desert tribes, the Muslims around Medina, and everywhere, calling them to join the expedition:

"Whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day, let him be present in Medina during Ramadan."

The Army Assembles

The army assembled and encamped at the well of Abu Inabah. The number gathered was 10,000. Another narration states that the number was 12,000—10,000 having set out from Medina and 2,000 having joined along the way.

All the Muhajirun and Ansar participated. There were 700 Muhajirun with 300 horses, and 4,000 Ansar with 500 horses.

The March to Mecca

In the eighth year of the Hijra, during the month of Ramadan, the Prophet set out from Medina toward Mecca at the head of 10,000 Muslim fighters. Both the Prophet and the fighters were fasting.

As they set out, the Prophet announced: "Whoever wishes to fast, let him fast; and whoever wishes to break his fast, let him break it." The Prophet himself continued fasting, and the fighters did not break their fast. However, as the journey continued, fasting became difficult. In the afternoon, the Prophet broke his fast with water and ordered his companions to do the same.

The Entry into Mecca

When the army encamped near Mecca, Abu Sufyan, Hakim ibn Hizam, and Budayl ibn Warqa came to the Prophet. Hakim and Budayl embraced Islam. Abu Sufyan was still hesitant. The Prophet declared: "Whoever enters Abu Sufyan's house is safe. Whoever enters the Kaaba is safe. Whoever enters the Sacred Mosque is safe." He also said: "Whoever lays down his arms is safe. Whoever closes his door and stays in his house is safe."

In the morning, as the army moved forward, Abu Sufyan watched the massive army and returned to Mecca.

The Fighting and Entry

The Quraysh polytheists armed themselves and prepared to fight the Muslims. The Muslims formed their battle ranks. The Prophet commanded his commanders not to fight anyone unless they were attacked first. The army entered Mecca from different directions.

Khalid ibn al-Walid entered from the lower part of Mecca through the pass of Lilat. The Quraysh had gathered the Banu Bakr, Banu Harith ibn Abdi Manat, the Hudhayl, and the Ahabish there, ordering them to defend the lower part of Mecca. Khalid encountered this group—assembled by Safwan ibn Umayyah, Ikrimah ibn Abi Jahl, and Suhayl ibn Amr—at the base of Mount Handamah. They tried to prevent Khalid from entering Mecca, drew their weapons, and showered arrows. In the skirmish that followed, some polytheists were killed and the rest fled and hid. The other divisions entered Mecca from different directions.

The Prophet's Entry

The Prophet then entered Mecca with his unit. He entered the city on the thirteenth night of Ramadan in the eighth year of the Hijra. A tent was pitched for him at the designated spot. He mounted his camel and rode to the Kaaba, where he performed the tawaf (circumambulation) seven times while still on his camel, then prayed. He ascended the hill of Safa and made supplication there.

The Destruction of Idols and the Sermon

The Prophet requested and was given the key to the Kaaba. Around the Kaaba were 360 idols—all were destroyed. When noon arrived, the Prophet commanded Bilal to ascend the Kaaba and give the call to prayer (adhan).

On the second day of the conquest, the Prophet entered the Kaaba, broke the idols inside, ordered the images on the pillars to be erased, and prayed there. He then delivered a sermon to the Muslims gathered outside.

After the noon prayer on the same day, the Prophet delivered his second conquest sermon from the steps of the Kaaba, his back leaning against the Kaaba.

The Restoration of Services and Pledges of Allegiance

After finishing his sermon, the Prophet sat in a corner of the Sacred Mosque. He had taken the key to the Kaaba from Uthman ibn Talhah and the office of providing water (siqayah) from Abbas. He then restored both offices to their respective holders.

The Meccans then pledged allegiance to the Prophet and embraced Islam. The author details some of those who became Muslim in Mecca—all of whom were pardoned by the Prophet.

Financial Arrangements

Since the Prophet had declared: "Nothing from the spoils of Mecca has been made lawful for us," no spoils were taken from Mecca. However, the Muslim army needed provisions, which required a considerable sum. The Prophet therefore requested loans from wealthy Meccans: 50,000 dirhams from Safwan ibn Umayyah, 40,000 from Abdullah ibn Abi Rabi'ah, and 40,000 from Huwaytib ibn Abduluzza. He distributed this among the needy fighters—each receiving 50 dirhams, or more or less according to their need. The compensation for the Banu Jadhima incident was also paid from this. The Prophet repaid all these loans from the spoils of the Hunayn campaign.

Prohibitions and Reforms

With the Conquest of Mecca, the sale of wine, carrion, pork, and idols was forbidden.

The Dispatch of Military Units

After the conquest, on the Friday corresponding to the twentieth of Ramadan, the Prophet dispatched military units in all directions, commanding them to eradicate everything that did not conform to Islam:

1. Hisham ibn al-As was sent with 200 men toward Yalamlam.
2. Khalid ibn Sa'id ibn al-As was sent with 300 men toward Uranah.
3. Khalid ibn al-Walid was sent with 30 horsemen to destroy the idol of al-Uzza.